Unit 12: Basic Discourse Analysis
(Comments on Activities)
1. If taken literally, the utterance "Do you think you could put this in the toaster?" is a yes/no question and one might reply to it by saying "Yes, I think so" or "No, I don't think so." But anyone who did this would almost certainly be regarded as being deliberately uncooperative, or perhaps as trying to make a rather silly joke. Not surprisingly, I interpreted this utterance as a request. I not only put the bread in the toaster but started the toaster and, at the appropriate time, removed the toast and handed it to my wife. This is a very trivial everyday occurrence, but it illustrates quite starkly that we do not interpret utterances literally, nor do we interpret them in a vacuum. We make assumptions about the purposes which lie behind an utterance and respond in a way relevant to those purposes.
A student in my Third Year Verbal Interaction class recently produced an excellent example of this kind of purposeful response. I had asked students to ask for directions on the campus and note carefully how people responded to their requests. One student stopped someone just outside the University bookshop and asked them for directions to Selly Oak station. The reply was "You don't need to go to Selly Oak. There's a University station right up there." The respondent did not reply to the actual question: "Where is Selly Oak station?", but to the assumed question: "Where can I catch a train?"
2 (i) It's another lovely day.
This is almost certainly a greeting of some kind. In our society, as in most societies, if we come across someone that we know it is considered rude to ignore them. We are obliged to speak. We have, therefore, a repertoire of utterances to use in such circumstances. In British English any of these utterances (Nice day. It's another lovely day. Beautiful isn't it. etc.) focus on the weather, but they are not treated as providing information or an opinion on the state of the weather. They are interpreted as meaning I acknowledge your presence. Alternatively, directed to someone who is not known to the speaker, utterances like this might be interpreted as meaning I want to talk to you.
(ii) You look really nice with your hair like that..
This looks like a compliment, and it may indeed be intended as such. But it may simply mean I acknowledge the fact that you have changed your hair in some way. If one of your friends appears with hair radically changed you are obliged to comment on this. Silence will probably be taken as disapproval or as showing an unfriendly lack of interest. Silence, therefore, would be meaningful. Given this, a complimentary opener may or may not be intended as a compliment. It might be reinforced as the conversation develops, but on the other hand it might be retracted.
(iii) How am I supposed to know?.
These words are often uttered impatiently and taken to mean That is an unreasonable question. They do not expect a literal answer.
(iv) I wonder if there's anything on telly.
Literally this is a statement on the speaker's state of mind. Very often it would be taken as a question or a request - Can you please tell me if there is anything on television? But this is not the whole story. The reply Of course there is. There are programmes every day on four different channels, would not be appropriate. The implied request is Can you please tell me if there is anything on television which I might find worth watching.
(v) I know what you mean.
This comes very commonly from the listener in a conversation. It means Yes, I am paying attention to what you say. It may also be taken to mean I agree with you or I sympathise with you.
(vi) If you want a beer there's one in the fridge.
This is normally interpreted as an offer. The if- clause is interesting here. Compare If it rains we'll get wet. This implies a causal relationship between rain and getting wet. It also suggests that if it doesn't rain we won't get wet. But there is no causal relationship between your wanting a beer and the existence of a beer in the fridge, and whereas one could certainly say If it rains we'll get wet and if it doesn't we won't, one could hardly say If you want a beer there's one in the f ridge, and if you don't there isn't.
(vii) Sometimes you just buy something like that. If you need something you need it.
This was uttered by the customer in front of me in the queue at a supermarket check-out. She had bought a large carton of ice-cream. When the check-out assistant tried to ring up the item the price wouldn't register. She asked the buyer how much the item cost. The customer was, I think, a little embarrassed by the fact that she had bought a slightly extravagant item without first checking the price. She said I'm sorry I don't know. Then excused herself by saying Sometimes you just buy something like that. If you need something you need it. Again the if is interesting. Literally the sentence If you need something you need it. is quite meaningless. But we have no difficulty in putting an interpretation on it.
(viii) It was really violent, because this friend of mine was there.
This was uttered by someone who was talking about a political demonstration. It was taken to mean I know that the demonstration was a violent one because I was told as much by a friend of mine who was there. It was not taken to mean I have a friend who can be guaranteed to turn any demonstration into a violent one. This use of because, meaning I know this to be the case because..., is very common in spoken English.
This utterance makes no sense if taken literally. It is uttered to reassure someone who is about to face an ordeal of some kind.
1. You might say:
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(Focusing on the hearer's ability to bring about the state of affairs.) | |
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Would you mind lending me ... |
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I need a copy of ...... |
2. You would probably use an indirect formulation like those above: Do you find it a bit cold in here? I'm sorry, but I'm a bit chilly. Do you think you could turn the heating up a bit? You could, however, be even more indirect and pointedly put on a heavy sweater, or clasp your arms round yourself to ward off the cold.
T: What's that, what is it?
P: Saw.
T: It's a saw, yes. What do we do with a saw?
P: Cut wood.
T: We cut wood with that. What do we do with that?
P: Metal.
T: We cut metal, yes we cut metal. What's that?
P: An axe.
T: It's an axe, yes. What do I cut with an axe?
P: Wood.
T: Yes, I cut wood with the axe. What do I cut with scissors?
P: Paper.
T: Yes, paper. What's that cutter called?
P: A knife.
T: A knife, yes. What do I cut with a knife?
P: Meat.
T: Meat. Yes.
P: Fish.
T: Fish. Yes. What else would you cut with a knife?
P: Sausages.
T: Sausages. Yes.
P: Chicken.
T: Chicken. Fine.
1.
T: { Let's just have a look at these things here. / Can you tell me first of all what's this?//
P: Paper.//
T: Piece of paper, yes. //
2
{And hands up./ What cutter will cut this?//
P: The pair of scissors.//
T: The pair of scissors, yes. // }
3
( Here we are, the pair of scissors. /And as you can see it's going to cut the paper. ) 1
4
{ Tell me what's this?//
P: Cigarette box//
T: Yes. }
5
{ What's it made from?//
P: Cardboard.//
T: Cardboard, yes.}
5
{ What will cut the cardboard?//
P: Scissors.//
T: Scissors, yes. }
6
( Here we are./ The scissors is cutting the cardboard.2
7
{Now then, what's this?//
P: Piece of wool. //
(T: Piece of -....
P: Wool.3
T: Wool, yes.}
8
{ What will cut the wool?//
P: Scissors
T: The scissors, yes. }
9
(There we are, look. / There's the wool being cut by the scissors.) 4
10
{ Now I've got a piece of what? //
P: Wood.//
T: Right. }
11 ( Will the scissors cut the piece of wood?/ /
P: No.//
T: Let's try. No it won't. )
12
{ Why won't the scissors cut the piece of wood? //
P: They weren't sharp enough. //
T: Not sharp enough.}
In general the analysis works well. There are problems we have indicated in the footnotes. Our initial presentation of the analysis did not allow for the fact that teachers do other things as well as ask questions. But when the teacher says Here we are, the pair of scissors. And as you can see it's going to do something, he is drawing the pupils' attention to the scissors and then telling them something rather than asking them something. What we have here is not a question (an elicit), but an informing act (an inform). The same applies to Here we are. The scissors is cutting the cardboard, and to There we are, look. There's the wool being cut by the scissors.
In the opening exchange you might reasonably identify the first part - Let's have a look at these things here - as directing attention to the question that is to come. This would give us a questioning move made up of two acts. In the full analysis this is not strictly true. But in the abbreviated version we are working with here this is a sensible analysis.
In the opening move in exchange 2 there are certainly two acts. The first part And, hands up is making sure that the pupils are paying attention, and also inviting them to take part in turntaking by offering an answer. The second part What cutter will cut this? actually asks the question.
In the third exchange the first part directs attention, and the second part informs. The same happens in exchanges 6 and 9.
Here is an interview between a student and her tutor. Can you divide this into exchanges? Many of the exchanges involve asking questions, but not all of them. What else is happening? Not all the exchanges have three parts. What other structures do you have?
A: { Hi
B: Hi. Good morning.}
(This is a two part exchange: a greeting is followed by a greeting.)
A: { Er, I've got a letter in my pigeon hole from erm my language person cos I've missed three classes. It said to either come and see you or er...
B: Yeah. Yeah.}
(This is another two part exchange. A informs B of something and B acknowledges.)
A: Or er. (This part is unfulfilled.)
B: {Were you off for quite a while or er...
A: I missed three lessons.
B: Right.}
(Three part questioning exchange)
{ Were you ill or er...
A: Erm yeah. I was ill for two weeks and I came in and I went home half way through the day.
B: Right.}
(Three part questioning exchange)
{Well if you're ill again you need to phone both departments really.
A: Yes, I realise that yeah.}
(Two part informing exchange)
B: {And if you're off for one day at a time or whatever, you just need to ring me. I think you should have my number.
A: Yeah.
B: ... and let me know. }
(Two part informing exchange. The acknowledging part - Yeah - is contained within the informing part.)
Otherwise if its for a longer period you need to have a doctor's note.
A: Right.
B: Erm to explain your absence.}
(Two part informing exchange. Again the acknowledging part - Right - is contained)
Have you registered with a doctor?
A: No, I haven't.}
(Two part questioning exchange. Questioning exchanges which are initiated by the teacher in a classroom contain three parts. This is because the teacher is required to confirm the pupil's answer. Questioning exchanges outside the classroom, however, may be two- or three- part exchanges.)
B: (If you do that right away then if it happens again you can get a doctor's note and then we can you know take it from there. OK?
A: OK. Thanks a lot.}
(Two part informing exchange)
B: {See you.
A: Bye.}
(Two part leave-taking exchange.)
1 These two sentences don't fit the analysis as we have laid it out here. in between asking two questions the teacher gives a little demonstration and comments on it as he does so.
2 Another teacher demonstration
3 Here the questioning routine is interrupted by a two part exchange in which the teacher checks on what the pupil has said.
4 Another teacher demonstration.
