(Comments on Activities)
(ii) False starts: But this was erm -er- not on a long journey no.
(iii) Colloquialisms: me and the rest of the family is probably more likely in spoken than written language. How would it sound if the speaker said My family and I ...?
(iv) Repeated use of co-ordinators But and And. These have been transcribed as beginning sentences. But we are often told that "You shouldn't start a sentence with and or but". Actually this isn't true. Sentences do start with and or but. It is, however, unusual in written language and therefore normally used only as a stylistic device - for emphasis. In spoken English, however, it appears to be very common. Or is this because sentence is a feature of the written rather than the spoken language?
(v) Overt interaction: ...not on a long journey no. This extract comes in answer to the question was that on a long journey?
(vi) Expressions of vagueness: It just sort of spread like the plague.
(viii) Repetition of very: ...it was a very small boat and it was very hot,
(ix) Cumulative nature of spoken language:
as opposed to a possible written version:
(b) (i) Long complex noun groups:
a tendency for their speech to alter;
the way technical information is presented in a less complex manner to those who lack the appropriate ...
(ii) Passives: have been observed;
(iii) Long complex lists mean that information is densely packed.
(v) Subordination:
(a) spoken (b) written (c) spoken (d) written ... spoken (e) spoken (f) written (g) spoken.
(a) spoken ... written ... spoken ... speaking ... written.
(b) written ... spoken.
(c) spoken.
(d) spoken ... written ... written,.
(e) spoken ... written.
(f) spoken.
(g) spoken ... written.
1. Spoken language contains many incomplete sentences, probably because it is produced in real time. Also because it is overtly interactive and we may adjust the message in response to feedback.
2. We use a lot of generalised vocabulary because of the pressure of real time encoding. A lot of spoken language is 'pre-packaged chunks' which can be readily retrieved and assembled. Because the purpose of spoken language is often social, we do not need to organise and express factual information precisely. Sometimes we may avoid being too precise for fear of appearing dogmatic or 'know-all'.
3. There is a predominance of co-ordinators because of the problems of real time encoding.
4. We often replace and expand references as we go along. This again is often the result of real time encoding.
5. There are a lot of interactive checks in spoken language because it is overtly interactive. We need to check that our interlocutor is with us; we need to make the interlocutor feel part of the discourse and we need to give opportunities for others to contribute to the discourse.
if; so; yes; not; in; the; with; to.
(b) I would also want to include here and now. You may argue that these are simply adverbs and here is no different from in Birmingham, in Britain or on the second floor. I would argue that there is a small group of words which relate to the time and place of speaking: now, then, here, there, etc., and that these form a closed set. This raises the question of what to do with tomorrow, soon and nearby. I'm afraid there is no absolutely clear-cut answer. The important thing is to be consistent in your decisions and to be prepared to be explicit if challenged.
(c) I would also want to include right and well when they are used as discourse markers:
Right that's enough
Well, I'm not sure.
- But not right as opposed to wrong or well as opposed to ill or badly.
(d) I would include one when it functions as a pronoun (I want one) or as a determiner (One day); but not when it is a number (There was one green bottle ... )
Here are my analyses with lexical words in bold type:
Text 1: Course notes, MATEFL, Birmingham University.
Canale lists the components of communicative competence as:
Grammatical competence: This relates to mastery of the language code - 'rules of the language such as vocabulary, word formation, sentence formation, pronunciation and linguistic semantics'.
Sociolinguistic competence: This 'addresses the extent to which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different sociolinguistic contexts depending on contextual factors such as the status of participants, purposes of the interaction, and norms or conventions of interaction.'
Discourse competence: 'This type of competence concerns mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres.' Canale elaborates this by drawing on the notions of cohesion and coherence.
Strategic competence : This component serves two functions. It compensates for breakdowns in communication, and it adapts the way the message is carried in order to achieve the desired rhetorical effect.
Lex = 82. Gram = 57. Lex % = 59. Clauses = 9. Lex per clause = 9.
Text 2: Casual conversation.
A: Are you a good sailor? Have you ever been sea sick?
B: Yeah I have been sea sick once. But I haven't sailed much. Except in a -
A: Was that on a long journey?
B: Yeah. In fact I'm quite a good traveller normally. But this was erm - er - not on a long journey no. It was about twenty miles. And erm coming - on the way back, it was a very small boat and it was very hot, and me and the rest of the family were on this very - in the inside of the boat. And it was just like being in a - on a cork carried by the water. And my brother started first and then it just sort of spread like the plague.
A: Oh terrible.
B: It was ghastly.
Lex = 37. Gram = 89. Lex % = 29. Clauses = 17. Lex per clause = 2.25.
Here are two more texts which I have analysed. The results here are not so clear cut. Can you suggest why this is?
Text 3: Letter from a seven-year-old to a friend of the same age.
Dear Becky,
I hope you are well I am well I am look ford to seeing you for three days in the summer holdays and I haven't been to any circus or zoos fairs and I diden know what you were talking About when you said on your letter something about a horse race and I have been to Swansea and been to the seaside and my freands live there called Eiwen and Kiersti and Susan and damian and their daddy and mummy are called gail and bob. Allen and me missed a day at school that was Monday and I had a nice time there
Love frome
Ruth xxxxxx
Lex = 43. Gram = 69. Lex % = 38. Clauses = 15. Lex per clause = 3.0
Text 4: Interview with Professor Edward Leigh, BBC Panorama 31.10.94.
I: Is it important for a bankrupt to make every effort to pay his debts?
L: Yes it is. His co-operation is an essential part of the system and he's under a duty to the receiver to pay over his estate to the receiver, to produce his books and papers and to co-operate with the receiver in the administration of the estate.
I: What happens if he arranges for any income that he has made to be paid over to a third party?
L: Well, two things can happen. First his discharge from bankruptcy can be delayed. Normally he's entitled to be discharged with three years. If he conducts his affairs fraudulently this can be delayed. And secondly the courts can always disallow a payment of that sort.
Lex = 48. Gram == 78. Lex % = 38. Clauses = 13. Lex per clause == 3.7.
