In Unit 4, we defined a sentence grammatically as a string of words having at least one 'free' clause. We also looked briefly at the internal structure of clauses, establishing the five major clause components of subject, verb, object, complement and adjunct. In this unit we shall:
Here, we will argue that a clause must have a verb in it. There are possible exceptions, but we shall not cover them immediately. In analytical work, therefore, if you are tempted to identify a string of words as a clause, but cannot seem to find a verb in the string, be suspicious.
ACTIVITY 1 Here are some mini-texts, of the sort one tends to see during the typical day. Some of them are complete clauses, and some of them are only phrases, which could be a constituent element in a clause, but are standing alone here. Say which are complete clauses and which are not. Give reasons. 1. Mind the step. 2. Resurfacing ahead. 3. No overtaking. 4. Dogs must be on a lead. 5. Beware of the dog! 6. More parking spaces on next floor. 7. Action for Disabled Customers. 8. Capture the true flavour of Arabia's Spice Routes with Swan Hellenic. 9. Further limits on contributions and benefits (effective from 9 August 1996). 10. Permit-holders only. |
The subject of a clause is nearly always present, but there are some exceptions, dealt with below.
The subject of a clause is often, but by no means inevitably, the 'doer' of the action referred to by the verb. This is a notional way of identifying the subject, but not entirely satisfactory. From a syntactic point of view, the subject typically precedes the verb (but not always), and 'agrees' with the verb. Look at these examples:
If we divide them up according to their functional clause components, we get:
Subject |
Verb |
Object |
Complement |
Adjunct | |
1 |
My cat |
catches |
mice |
never | |
2 |
Mice |
like |
chocolate |
||
3 |
your cat |
is |
deaf |
||
4 |
My essay |
has been eaten |
by mice |
In 1, my cat is the 'doer' of the action of catching. In 2, the verb like does not involve much 'doing'. Like does not refer to an active process, but an experiential one. Mice is still the subject here, which is why notional definitions such as 'doer' are not adequate, and why 'doer' has to be put into inverted commas. Notice that there is agreement between my cat and catches in 1 and between mice and like in 2. The surface marking of this agreement for different grammatical 'persons' (i.e. third person singular, third person plural etc.) is impoverished in modern English, but it is still there in principle for all persons. In 3, the subject does not 'do' anything - it 'is'. The clause process referred to here is 'relational'. Notice also that the subject follows the verb, because it is a question. In 4, mice, not my essay, is the 'doer' of the action. But my essay is still the subject, since we can see that it agrees with has been eaten. This is a passive construction. In the corresponding active construction, mice have eaten my essay, mice is the subject and the verb changes from has eaten to have eaten to agree with it.
The most common reason for a clause to lack a subject is because it is 'understood' or 'retrievable' from a neighbouring clause. There are two main ways in which this can happen:
1. Two clauses which are joined together by a word such as and often have the same subject. In this case the subject may be dropped from the second clause, e.g. [1] he staggered into the room [2] and collapsed. Here the subject is he in both clauses, but is omitted from the second clause by a process known as ellipsis.
2. Certain kinds of dependent or bound clause lack a subject, again because it is 'retrievable' from a neighbouring clause: [1] Having now a good house and very sufficient income, [2] he intended to marry. Clause 1 has no subject, but if it did have one it would be same as the subject from clause 2, i.e. he. (The terms 'dependent' and 'bound' will be discussed later, but for now you can think of a dependent clause as one which depends on another, neighbouring, clause for its full interpretation.)
Imperative clauses, e.g. clear off! also have no subject, although some grammarians argue that the subject is really the addressee, in this case retrievable from the context.
ACTIVITY 2 Underline the subjects of the clauses in this text. Mark places where subjects are omitted, as a result of ellipsis, or retrievable from a neighbouring main clause. The sun blazed down on the scorched savannah. The dry grass rustled like sandpaper in the hot breeze. Overhead, the sky was porcelain blue. But the giraffe was donning a sea-green sou'wester. A sunbathing lion opened a quizzical eye and started to roar with laughter. A pack of hyenas cackled hysterically. Undeterred, the giraffe tugged on his wellies, one, two, three and four. Gnus gnudged each other, whispering and giggling. The giraffe pooh poohed their jibes and unfurled a sober black umbrella. Still, the other animals broiled in the sun. Elephants sported smart new trunks. A long-legged camel shyly adjusted the bikini top on her humps. But the giraffe was studying the skies. And sure enough, a little black cloud came scudding in from the west. Then another. Then another. Until at last the sky was as black as ink. With a violent crack, the clouds split open. The sunbathers were bathed in a torrent of rain. |
An object is present in transitive clauses. Notionally speaking, the object is typically the 'done to' element. But once again, one must be careful with notional definitions. In the examples looked at above under Subjects, remember that although my essay is certainly the 'done to' element, it is also the subject in this case. This sentence does not have an object at all, since the doer of the action is referred to in an adjunct structure.
The 'done to' object is often referred to as the direct object. Indirect objects are typically beneficiaries, or recipients of direct objects. For example:
Here, two million pounds and a plate-stand are the direct objects, and the University and her indirect objects. Notice that elements which appear as indirect objects can also appear as the subject of a related passive clause: The University was given two million pounds. But this depends on the verb in the clause. Can we say: She was made a plate-stand?
Subjects and objects are typically nouns or noun phrases, or pronouns. Noun phrases can be very long, and contain all sorts of material embedded within their structure. Consider the following examples:
Subject |
Verb |
Object | |
1 |
Mice |
like |
chocolate |
2 |
The mice in my kitchen |
like |
chocolate |
3 |
The dear little mice in my kitchen |
like |
chocolate |
4 |
The dear little mice which invade my kitchen in the small hours of the morning |
like |
chocolate |
We shall investigate this process more carefully in a later unit. Exactly the same thing can happen to noun phrases in the Object slot.
A complement is present in what are sometimes known as relational clauses. In a transitive clause, the semantic relationship between subject and object is typically one in which the subject 'affects' the object in some way. By contrast, the semantic relationship between subject and complement is one in which the complement describes the subject. The central case of a relational verb is be, e.g. Is your cat deaf? but there are others. The verb grow can be used in several patterns, and illustrates the difference between them:
He has grown SV (intransitive clause)
He has grown pumpkins SVO (transitive clause)
He has grown prosperous SVC (relational clause)
Adjuncts are the least central part of the clause, as their name suggests. They describe circumstances and other contingent matters such as frequency, or even the attitude of the speaker to the truth content of what is being said. The term 'adjunct' is a gross over-simplification of the many elements which occur outside the main SPOC structure of a clause, but it will suffice at this stage. The two most common exponents of the adjunct slot are: (a) an adverb, (b) a prepositional phrase. Here are some examples:
Subject |
Verb |
Object |
Complement |
Adjunct | |
1 |
she |
Did ... arrive |
unexpectedly | ||
2 |
Dillons |
will be putting on |
a book display |
in G43 | |
3 |
Kubla Khan |
Did ... decree |
a stately pleasure dome |
In Xanadu |
ACTIVITY 3 Now look at the text from Activity 2 again. Nearly every clause has one element in italics. Say which element in its clause this italicised element is. One sentence is underlined. There could be two slightly different analyses of this clause. Say what they are. The sun blazed down on the scorched savannah. The dry grass rustled like sandpaper in the hot breeze. Overhead, the sky was porcelain blue. But the giraffe was donning a sea-green sou'wester. A sunbathing lion opened a quizzical eye and started to roar with laughter. A pack of hyenas cackled hysterically. Undeterred, the giraffe tugged on his wellies, one, two, three and four. Gnus gnudged each other, whispering and giggling. The giraffe pooh poohed their jibes and unfurled a sober black umbrella. Still, the other animals broiled in the sun. Elephants sported smart new trunks. A long-legged camel shyly adjusted the bikini top on her humps. But the giraffe was studying the skies. And sure enough, a little black cloud came scudding in from the west. Then another. Then another. Until at last the sky was as black as ink. With a violent crack, the clouds split open. The sunbathers were bathed in a torrent of rain. |
The most important distinction we are making here is between independent, main or free clauses and dependent, subordinate or bound clauses. These two sets of terms are used as alternatives. The first set of labels refers to 'self-standing' clauses and are like those we discussed at the end of Unit 4. They are capable of being used alone, without depending on another clause to 'make sense'. The inverted commas here indicate a need for caution towards 'making sense' as a general criterion in linguistic work, a point we return to below.
An analogy is sometimes drawn between clauses and word formation. Words potentially consist of several parts, some of which are free-standing and some of which can only exist when bound on to something else. For example, the word unexpectedly, can be broken down into un + expect + ed + ly. Only the expect part is free-standing. The other parts are prefixes, endings or suffixes, which have no independent existence. The analogy with clauses is that some clauses also have no independent existence. For example, that you were going is certainly a clause. It has a verb were going and a subject you. It also has the word that, which clearly makes it dependent on something else. We do not use clauses like that you were going on their own, but as parts of longer sentences such as I didn't know that you were going.
Our working definition of a sentence is that it is a string containing at least one free clause. It may contain more than one, and if it does, they must obviously be joined together in some way. One conventional term for a sentence containing two free clauses is a 'compound' sentence. The clauses which a compound sentence contains are said to be 'co-ordinated'. Here are some examples, in which the two co-ordinated clauses are numbered [1] and [2]:
1. [1] Her father lives in London (and) [2] her mother is dead.
2. [1] I have searched the whole house (but) [2] I just can't find it.
3. [1] We spent a lot on our holiday (so) [2] we're broke at the moment.
4. [1] He arrived at about ten (and) [2] went straight to his hotel.
The conjunctions and, but and so do the job of joining two free clauses together. The conjunctions are often treated as part of the second of two co-ordinated clauses, but this is a little misleading. It is better to think of them as + signs between two clauses of equal status. Interestingly, the actual word plus has joined the ranks of co-ordinating conjunctions in modern spoken English, e.g.: She said: 'You do have all the secretarial skills, don't you ?',and I said: 'Yeah, plus I've got languages as well.' Example 4 above reminds us that when two co-ordinated clauses have the same subject, the second clause often omits the subject. This does not make the second clause any less free.
These also contain more than one clause. However, only one of the clauses is free, and the other is bound, as in: [1]I didn't know [2] that you were going. The two clauses are joined together here by the word that, and it is conventional to say that the clause introduced by that is dependent on the preceding clause. Unlike co-ordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions are definitely treated as part of the subordinate clause. One reason for this is that many subordinate clauses can be moved to a position in front of the free clause, together with the conjunction. This does not happen with co-ordinated clauses. Compare:
1.a [1] He stopped to buy a sandwich [2] although he was late.
1.b [1] Although he was late [2] he stopped to buy a sandwich.
2.a [1] Her father lives in London (and) [2] her mother is dead
2.b *[1] And her mother is dead [2] her father lives in London.
There are more subordinating conjunctions than co-ordinating conjunctions, e.g.: although, because, if, that, until, when, whether etc. You can find more complete lists in any standard reference grammar.
ACTIVITY 4 Label the following snippets from advertisements as one of the following: a. Compound sentence (co-ordinated clauses) b. Complex sentence (main + subordinate clauses) c. Simple sentence (having only one main clause) d. Bound clause - not a sentence e. Not a clause 1. You don't need an espresso machine to enjoy the finest Italian espresso. 2. You just need a cafetière or filter machine, and, of course, Lavazza. 3. LAVAZZA ESPRESSO 4. The ITALIAN EXPRESSION for COFFEE 5 This month's MOJO magazine is a special Beatles collectors edition and steps out in three deeply fabulous different covers. 6. If you're in two minds about what to wear trust your IQ. 7 The Bath and Body Collection contains a 50ml Eau de Toilette spray, a 50ml tube of Body Lotion and a 50ml tube of Hair and Body Shampoo. 8. Containing Eau de Toilette 30 ml, Aftershave Balm 30ml and Foam Shave 38ml. 9. Available from leading Department Stores, selected Perfumeries, Chemists and larger Boots stores. 10. While stocks last. Turn to Comments on Activities |
Of course, the compound and complex types can be combined, e.g.:
[1 free] Portland conservatories have been reduced (and,) [2{2a. bound/subordinate to 2b} if you order now, {2b free} you will receive a luxury cane suite absolutely free with your conservatory.]
ACTIVITY 5 Here are two short advertising texts, very typical of the genre, which present some difficulties for analysis when compared with formal unmarked written English. Try applying the categories from Activity 2 to the stylistic "sentences" of these texts. What difficulties do you experience? Text 1 3 pieces of equipment generate pin-sharp images. You already own 2. Cast your eyes over our new range of Stylus Color printers and you'll discover the third. It's a highly sophisticated crystal print-head. And you'll find it in them all. Unlike conventional printheads it doesn't explode ink onto surfaces, it pumps it on in minute quantities, giving greater control and less misting. So you get sharper, crisper dots which, in turn, make sharper crisper images. Text 2 It is more than twenty years since Timberland developed the first water proof leather boot. The original Tan Buck boot was made from silicone treated leather. With injection moulded soles and four rows of latex sealed stitching, to ensure even the tiniest droplet of water could not get through. It has become a classic. Often copied but never replicated. |
Most of our experience of language is as a continuous flow of communication, in which speakers take turns, statements are responded to, questions are answered, one argument follows another in a coherent fashion, and so on. Not much of what we experience consists of single sentences, isolated from any surrounding discourse or text. Here are some examples of relatively isolated sentences:
1. At the third stroke the time sponsored by Accurist will be 2:02 and 20 seconds.
2. Bicycles chained to these railings will be removed.
3. Do not lean out of the window.
4. Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.
True, even these are more likely to appear in some physical settings than others, but they do not need any linguistic support to work. They do not refer back to any previous language, nor do they need further clarification. They are not directed at particular people, but rather to anyone and everyone, and they certainly do not anticipate a reply. They are, in a sense, self-sufficient. Most language is not like this. The following are far more representative of what most language is like:
5. My goodness, it's after 2 already.
6. Do you think it was stolen?
7. Man killed leaning out of window.
8. A test-tube was filled with water.
5 is directed at someone. Its exclamatory opening, and the use of the word already locate this sentence in a discourse framework implying shared knowledge with another person as to the reason for the utterance. Of course some people do talk to themselves, which is rather a special case, but it does not affect the real nature of the sentence. 6 is also directed at someone and the pronoun it obviously refers back to a previous remark. 7 is directed at a very wide audience, and in that way is like 1-4, but it is not as isolated since we know that it will receive further clarification. Similarly, we recognise 8 as part of a longer account.
It is important to realise that even though sentences 1-4 are presented as isolated here, they are not automatically so. One can imagine situations in which they would be part of a surrounding discourse. For example, 4 could be the opening sentence of an explanation by a teacher, but since it also falls into the class of timeless truths, it should serve here to illustrate the difference between relatively self-sufficient sentences and sentences which probably form an integral part of a longer text or discourse. There is a paradox involved in discussing the difference between isolated sentences and text-based sentences in that the very act of discussing the matter leads us to produce examples which, by virtue of being examples, become isolated in the discursive text! That is, all the items in Activity 4 seem to be isolated when viewed as items in an Activity, even if in "real life" some of them would be text-based.
Activity 6 Assign the following sentences to either the relatively isolated or relatively text based category. If any could belong to either category, explain.
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What is it that enables us to spot text-based sentences? The linguistic markers are often things like pronouns or sentence adverbs which make reference back to earlier text. Some other principles are at work in spoken discourse. Consider the following very ordinary exchange: A: What are you doing this evening? B: Staying at home . A's question is fairly vague - doing encompasses a very wide range of activity. B narrows the reference by using staying. Moreover, he does not use a grammatical subject or an auxiliary verb, or repeat the adverbial reference from speaker A's question. We can probably assume that a "full" (and therefore much more isolated) version of his reply would be I am staying at home this evening. Notice also that staying at home is most unlikely as a response to a more precise question such as Where are you staying this evening? since it would be improbably repetitive of material already assumed as shared between the speakers. In that case, the answer would be At home. Speakers assess the ongoing state of shared knowledge and tailor their replies accordingly. The result is a high frequency of strings which, from the point of view of a clause-based grammatical model, appear to be incomplete.
This is much less evident in formal writing. Writers make their sentences in text cohere by a number of devices, but because they do not receive constant feedback from the reader, and because there is no opportunity to repair breakdowns in communication, they also need to be precise, or explicit. This they achieve by writing in what we call free clauses and sentences.
It is important to remember that writers may choose not to do this, for a whole variety of reasons. London. Michaelmas term lately over - we discussed the example in Unit 4. Le Carré begins a section of his novel Our Game with a paragraph consisting only of the words Two men. Some of the stylistic sentences in Activity 5 were also of this type. In fact, although advertising notoriously departs from the formal conventions for punctuating written language, one can often repunctuate the text into full sentences without changing any words.
Let us review our definition of a sentence as a string of words having at least one free clause. By 'free', we do not mean 'isolated' in the sense we looked at in Activity 4. Free clauses often still have some connection, by pronoun reference or whatever, to preceding text. But they are structurally free in that they fulfil the criteria outlined in this Unit. The criterion of 'making sense' also now needs closer scrutiny. When we say that a free clause makes sense on its own, we need to qualify that by saying that only relatively isolated free clauses make complete sense on their own. Text-bound free clauses make literal sense, but the full scope of their meaning is likely to be lost if they are extracted from the text in which they were originally located. A sentence such as: I have absolutely no idea has a literal meaning. It is a free clause. But it is heavily discourse-bound, and could scarcely stand alone as a remark or text, unaccompanied by any preceding statement.
ACTIVITY 7
Book titles make an unexpectedly fruitful object of study from a grammatical point of view. Sometimes, but not often, they are sentences. Bound clauses, which in theory do not stand alone, are also used. Noun phrases are probably the most popular format of all, and prepositional phrases occur often. The following titles include all these types. Identify them.
1. Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit |
6. How Green Was My Valley |
2. Three Men In A Boat |
7. Don't Tell Alfred |
3. Where The Wild Things Are |
8. Select Phrases In The Canton Dialect |
4. For Whom The Bell Tolls |
9. Down And Out In Paris And London |
5. Now We Are Six |
10. To Kill A Mockingbird |
